Description: Just like driving a car, there are rules that are in place when we doing ground operations with a plane. It can happen anywhere in the airport and it is defined as any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
By learning the proper procedures safety protocols and adhering to the FARs related to all of the various stages of flight and go around operations pilots and airport personnel can reduce the occurrences of runway incursions.
Objective: To teach the student on the elements related to airport operations which will prevent runway incursions and its relation to different phases of flight.
Reference: PHAK Appendix 1, chapter 14, and Airplane flying handbook.
Equipment: PHAK, FARs, whiteboard, toy plane, handouts
Instructor Actions
Distinct challenges and requirements during taxi operations not found in other phases of flight operations
Taxiing is the controlled movement of an airplane under its own power on the surface.
Pilots must understand the airport environment whether it is controlled or uncontrolled or whether it is busy or not.
There will be planes, vehicles, people, and buildings in close proximity to our plane during taxi.
Maintain situational awareness to avoid them.
Hot spots must be reviewed and pilots must understand their significance.
In controlled airports, pilots must be given permission, directions, and clearances to start taxiing.
Make sure the taxiway is clear and all instructions are understood.
Read back all runway instructions and write clearances.
Pilots must be able to maintain centerline with just their rudders and place their yoke in the right positions to counteract wherever the wind is blowing from.
Taxiing under low visibility can pose a challenge as there is no navigation system to help out pilots.
There might be construction which we will have to consider.
Jet blast
Procedures for appropriate cockpit activities during taxiing including taxi route planning, briefing the location of hotspots, communication, and coordinating with ATC.
Review any new airports signage, marking, and lightings.
Review the current airport NOTAM and ATIS for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity and other airport risks.
Review current airport diagrams and hotspots and any published standard taxi routes.
Review the taxiway visibility and other weather factors.
Brief the expected taxi route to include any short lines and runways to cross and hotspots.
Hotspots is designed as a location on an airport with a history of the potential risk of collision or runway incursion and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary.
Complete as many checklist items as possible before taxiing.
During low visibility operations, brief any special considerations.
Get the clearance from ATC, write it down and repeat back all clearances and hold short.
Advise ATC if you do not understand directions.
Ask for a progressive taxi if needed.
Use standard phrases.
Adjust any change to your taxi route.
Remind occupants to maintain a sterile cockpit.
Use the airport diagram to follow the progress of the taxi operation but do not be distracted by it.
Monitor the ground frequency to anticipate any deviations.
If crossing a runway, pilots must be sure that they have a crossing clearance from ATC.
Procedures for steering, maneuvering, maintain taxiway, runway position, and situational awareness
Pilots should make themselves familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment with an airport diagram and highlight the light.
Do checklists before taxi to increase situational awareness.
Ensure that the plane can clear all obstructions.
Pilots must be scanning from side to side.
A safe taxi speed (speed walking).
Place the plane on the centerline to avoid hitting obstructions.
Slow down when turning so it will not skid.
Make sure to check the brakes.
Maintain ground frequency to be able to think ahead.
Check weather conditions to able to see
The relevance/importance of hold lines
Noncompliance with a runway holding position marking may result in the FAA filing a pilot deviation against you.
Hold position markings are located wherever a taxiway intersects a runway or another taxiway to indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway
Runway Hold Lines
Consists of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed that are painted on the surface and extend across the width of the taxiway to indicate where the plane should stop when approaching a runway.
Painted across the entire taxiway pavement and are collocated with holding position sign.
As you approach the runway, the two solid lines will be closest to you and you must stop and ensure that no part of the plane crosses the double solid lines until an ATC clearance.
Runway holds short signs has white character, outlines in black, on a red background.
When exiting the runway, the double dashed yellow lines will be closest to you.
You must cross all four lines to be clear of the runway.
Holding position signs and markings for ILS critical area
ILS systems have critical areas that must be kept clear of all obstacles in order to ensure the quality of the broadcast signal.
Appears on the pavements as a horizontal yellow ladder extending across the width of the taxiway.
ILS critical area hold sign has white characters, outlines in black, on a red background.
Holding Position markings for taxiway intersection
Single dashed yellow line extending across the width of the runway.
Procedures for ensuring the pilot maintains a strict focus on the movement of the aircraft and ATC communications, including the elimination of all distractive activities during aircraft taxi, takeoff, and climb out to a cruise.
Exercise situation awareness during these operations
Understand ATC clearances and know the planned route for taxi.
Perform the appropriate checklists at the appropriate times.
Taxi slowly and stay in the centerline.
Minimize head down time, talking to passengers, and non-essential activity, texting, adjusting technology
Be cautious when the ATC says line up and wait.
Make sure you get a reason for the delay.
Make sure you are on the right runway by looking at all the signs and markings and your heading indicator should match the runway direction.
Procedures for holding the pilot’s workload to a minimum during taxi operations which should increase the pilot’s awareness while taxiing.
Review any new airports signage, marking and lightings.
Review the current airport NOTAM and ATIS for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity and other airport risks.
Review current airport diagrams and hotspots and any published standard taxi routes.
Review the taxiway visibility and other weather factors.
Brief the expected taxi route to include any short lines and runways to cross and hotspots.
Brief any passengers and ask them to ask questions now.
All checklists that can be done pre taxi should be completed.
Taxi slowly and stay in the centerline.
Minimize head down time, talking to passengers, and non-essential activity, texting, adjusting technology
Taxi operation planning procedures, such as recording taxi instructions, reading back taxi clearances and reviewing taxi routes on the airport diagram
After reviewing taxi routes before the flight, airport closures, weather, and ATC delays.
On the airport diagram, highlight the route, any hold short lines, and hotspots.
Contact ground or clearance to leave the non-movement area to the destination of your intentions.
Write down taxi instructions and hold short instructions.
This will make sure you do not miss any instructions and make sure you understand it.
Read back to ATC the instructions and hold short instructions so that they can fix any misunderstandings.
Use standard aviation language and phrases.
Do not rush communications.
Review the route and change if needed.
Use the diagram but don’t get distracted by it.
Procedures for ensuring that clearances or instructions that are actually received are adhered to rather than the ones expected to be received.
At familiar airports, we know what to expect and we can predict what ATC will say.
When pilots visit a new airport or the airport is under construction, ATC may deviate instructions and routing.
Make sure to listen to ATIS and look at NOTAMS to see any runway or taxiway closures.
Be able to adjust to the new routing by making sure you understand the instructions.
Ask for a progressive taxi if needed.
Don’t assume anything.
Be attentive and make sure you know where you are on the airport.
Procedures for maintaining/enhancing situational awareness when conducting taxi operations in relation to other aircraft operation in the vicinity as well as to other vehicles moving on the airport.
Know your intended route before taxi.
Perform the checklist as much as possible before taxi.
Scan from left to right for people, aircraft and other obstructions.
Always know your position on the field and use an airport diagram.
Maintain centerline to ensure you are clear of any wings.
Tune into the ground frequency.
Don’t taxi too fast so you can be prepared to stop.
Look for any hold short positions and hotspots and get any needed clearances.
Turn on the exterior lights to make sure you are visible to other planes during low visibility situations.
Procedures for a briefing if a landing rollout to a taxiway exit will place the pilot in close proximity to another runway which can result in a runway incursion.
Airport diagrams help pilots determine their positions.
Make sure you are aware of the hold short lines and signs.
Make sure no part of the plane crosses the two solid line.
Make sure you are aware of any taxiway position signs to make sure you are in the correct area.
Look for enhanced taxiway centerline markings which tells you that you are about to enter a runway.
Look for lights like the runway guard lights and clearance bar lights that signal a runway.
Stop bar lights are also used to signal an incoming runway in low visibility.
Know the LAHSO procedures.
Make sure to get a clearance from ATC if you are to proceed to cross the runway.
Appropriate after landing/taxi procedures in the event the aircraft is on a taxiway that is between parallel taxiways.
Make sure you are clear of both runways by having none of the planes pass the two solid lines.
Listen carefully to the ground.
You must have an ATC clearance to cross the runway
Even with a clearance, look both ways to make sure there is no incoming traffic.
Specific procedures for operations at an airport with an operating air traffic tower with emphasis on ATC communication and runway entry/crossing authorization
Planes must stop at all hold short positions.
No part of the plane can cross the solid yellow lines.
Must get ATC clearance to cross (“cross”).
Look both ways when you do cross.
ATC may also say line up and wait at a specific runway.
You are able to cross the hold short lines but cannot takeoff
ATC should advise of any delays
If no takeoff clearance is given after 90 seconds, contact ATC.
ATC communications and pilot actions before takeoff, before landing, and after landing at towered and non-towered airports.
Before takeoff at towered-airport
Ensure you have the airport diagram and are at the right position.
Remain vigilant
Hold short of the hold short lines
Make sure no part of the plane crosses the solid yellow lines.
Wait until you get a clearance that says you are clear to takeoff or line up and wait.
Look both ways when entering the runway for traffic.
Turn on all lights.
Confirm with your instruments that you are on the right runway.
Landing at towered airports
Make sure all parts of the plane has crossed the four hold short lines.
Confirm with the position signs of your location and with your airport diagram.
If you are in between two runways, stay clear of both hold short lines for both runways.
Contact ground to get clearance to cross the runway or go to your destination.
Make sure to look both ways to look for traffic.
Maintain alertness.
Nontowered pre-takeoff and landing
Use the CTAF, unicom, of FSS frequency to communicate with the other pilots in the area to give out position reports.
Hold short of the runway.
Do not line up and wait.
Before taking off, do a report on the frequency of your intentions then look out for any incoming traffic to land.
If there is no traffic, then you may take-off.
Before landing
If you are staying in the pattern, make sure you tell that to the planes in the area.
Say your position every time wherever you are in the traffic pattern.
Say your landing runway.
If you are coming from outside the pattern, state your intentions and location ten miles from the airport.
Tell the runway you intend on landing.
Tell how you will join the traffic pattern.
After landing, get clear of the runway.
B vigilant and listen for any traffic reports.
Make sure you announce to the frequency of your intentions and then look both ways for traffic to continue taxi.
Procedures unique to night operations
Extra caution should be used when directed by ATC to taxi onto or across a runway, especially at night.
At night, press on the brakes more so you can make sure you are not creeping up to the whole short line.
Pay close attention when instructed to “line up and wait,” especially at night or during periods of low visibility.
At night or in low visibility, consider lining up slightly left or right of centerline when holding for takeoff so that your aircraft is visible and can be differentiated from runway lights.
Use exterior lights at night so you can be more visible. (91.209)
(a) Engines Running. Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running.
(b) Taxiing. Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, anti-collision, and logo lights, if available. To signal intent to other pilots, turn on the taxi light when the aircraft is moving or intending to move on the ground, and turn it off when stopped or yielding or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel. Strobe lights should not be illuminated during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots or ground personnel.
(c) Crossing a Runway. All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway.
Know the location of other plane’s position by the positioning of their lights
Know how to activate the pilot controlled lights.
Know all the lights associated with the airports.
When landing, look for the airport beacon lights.
Operations at non-towered airports (AC90-42F)
Familiarize themselves with the local traffic pattern direction and check their specific pattern altitude. During calm wind conditions, be aware that flight operations may occur at more than one runway at the airport.
Listen to the ASOS
Aircraft may be using an instrument approach procedure (IAP) to runways other than the runway in use for visual flight rules (VFR) operations.
Be sure that the taxi plan is understood.
Be alert, communicate your intentions on the common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF), and listen for other aircraft operating on, to, and from the airport.
Not line up on the departure runway and hold any longer than absolutely necessary. Always state the name of the airport at the beginning and end of the radio transmission.
Some aircraft operating at airports without operating control towers may not be equipped with a radio. Be alert for them.
Current aeronautical data for the airport is obtained, including the operating hours and status of the control tower
Use of aircraft exterior lighting
Low visibility situations
During low visibility operations, brief the requirements and special considerations such as the low visibility taxi chart, if published for the airport, and be alert if ATC states to hold short of the ILS critical area line.
Low visibility conditions increase the risk of a runway incursion. During low visibility conditions, all resources available should be used during taxi. Resources include the airport diagram, the heading indicators, and airport signs, markings, and lighting. These resources help keep the aircraft on its assigned taxi route, and not crossing any runway hold lines without clearance. Therefore, it is extremely important that pilots perform all heads-down tasks (e.g., programming the FMS and calculating takeoff data) while the aircraft is stopped so they can maintain outside vigilance and SA.
Slow down so there will be more time to react to hazards.
If possible during low visibility operations, flight crews should conduct pre-departure checklists only when the aircraft is stopped or while taxiing straight ahead on a taxiway without complex intersections.
Use exterior lights to help others identify you.
Air Traffic Control Common Phraseology
"Cleared to taxi"
When told by ground control or tower that you are cleared to taxi, the controller has given you instruction to taxi along taxiway centerlines according to taxiway markings. It is important to repeat all controller instructions and runway crossing instructions, as you may be told to "hold short" of a specific runway and wait for further instructions.
"Position and hold"
The tower expects you to taxi onto runway centerline and maintain a stopped position while the aircraft in front of you gains separation or clears the runway. It is important that, prior to crossing the hold-short lines, you verify your instructions, verify runway of use, and scan extended final for traffic.
"Cleared for takeoff"
The tower controller is the only authority to clear you for takeoff at a controlled airfield. Repeat back your takeoff clearance and call sign, as well as scan final for traffic. The tower may request other specific instructions, so listen closely to your takeoff clearance.
"Enter closed traffic"
The tower has acknowledged the pilot's intention to perform successive operations involving takeoffs and landings or low approaches where the aircraft does not exit the traffic pattern.
"Cleared for the option"
When you are cleared for the option you have been given permission to either do a touch-and-go, make a low approach, missed approach, stop and go, or full-stop landing. If requesting this clearance, the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.
"Cleared touch-and-go"
When authorized by the tower, the touch-and-go procedure allows the pilot to land on the runway, reconfigure the airplane and perform a takeoff to re-enter the traffic pattern. If requesting this approach the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.
"Cleared low approach"
A low approach clearance allows the pilot to perform a simulated emergency landing or normal landing down to the runway environment (100' AGL) and then perform a go-around to re-enter or depart the pattern. If requesting this approach you should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.
"Cleared stop-and-go"
A stop-and-go clearance allows the pilot to land on the runway, come to a full stop, and then takeoff on the remaining length of runway. The pilot must be aware of runway lengths and takeoff distance requirements. This procedure can be beneficial in keeping costs lower when performing night currency. If requesting this clearance the pilot should do so upon establishing downwind on a VFR traffic pattern.
"Cleared to land"
When given clearance to land the tower has authorized you to land on the runway in use. The phrase "cleared to land" gives you immediate use of that runway, unless the tower advises that you are in sequence for landing ("number two to land, number three, etc..."). After advising approach or tower that you are inbound for landing at your destination you do not have to make any further request for clearance to land.
"Land-and-hold-short"
The land-and-hold-short procedure requires the pilot to perform an accurate landing on the runway so that the pilot can stop the aircraft before reaching an intersecting runway, intersecting taxiway, or construction area. If you are unable to comply with landand-hold-short operations, you may request clearance for a different runway.
"Make Short Approach"
Used by ATC to have a pilot to alter their traffic pattern so as to make a short final approach. If unable to execute a short approach, simply tell the ATC so.
"Parking with me"
Under normal conditions you would exit the runway at the first available taxiway, stop the aircraft after clearing the runway, and call ground control for instructions if you have not already received them. If the controller says "parking with me", he or she has given you clearance to taxi to your destination.
"Caution: wake turbulence"
This call from ATC advises the pilot of the potential for encountering wake turbulence from departing or arriving aircraft.
"Frequency change approved"
You've reached the edge of the controller's airspace and may change your radio to your next frequency.
"Proceed direct"
You may turn to the direct heading of your destination (often followed by this heading). Usually used by ATC once you've been vectored clear of other traffic in the area.
"Report position"
The controller wants to pinpoint your position relative to the airport. You should report altitude, distance, and direction. For example: "8081G is five miles southwest of the airport at one thousand two hundred feet"
"Expedite"
ATC would like you to hurry up whatever it is that you're doing; taking off, landing, climbing, descending, or taxiing to your destination.
"Ident"
ATC request for a pilot to use his aircraft transponder identification feature (usually an IDENT button). This helps the controller to confirm an aircraft identity and position.
"Squawk"
Followed by a squawk code or function button on the transponder. ATC issues individual squawk codes to all aircraft within radar service in order to differentiate traffic.
"Go around"
Pilots receiving this transmission should abandon their approach to landing. Additional instructions from ATC may then follow. Unless otherwise instructed, VFR aircraft executing a go-around should overfly the runway while climbing to pattern altitude, then enter the traffic pattern by way of the crosswind leg.
"Watch for Traffic..."
Usually followed by the direction and distance of the traffic, you should immediately scan for it with "Looking for traffic" and report back to the controller whether you have the aircraft insight or not.
"Extend Downwind"
While this may seem obvious, the controller wants you to continue straight on your downwind until he or she tells you to turn base (often followed by "I'll call your base"). In all likelihood you're going to have a long final. Keep course and scan for other traffic.
Airport Signs - (FAA)
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