Navigation and Flight Planning

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Description: Flying as a mode of transportation means it will take us to different places so we need to learn how to navigate to get to our destination. 

 

Objective: To familiarize the student with essentials in navigation and flight planning. This will be essential in completing the flight safely and efficiently. 

 

Reference: PHAK, Navigation log, Charts 

 

Elements 

 

1. Terms used in navigation 

 

1. Navigation

1. True course: course over ground relative to true north.

2. True heading: True course-corrected for wind relative to true north. 

3. Variation: Angular difference between true north and magnetic north. 

4. Magnetic heading: Direction aircraft is pointed with respect to the magnetic north. 

5. Magnetic course: True course-corrected for magnetic variation. 

6. Deviation: Magnetic compass error caused by magnetic fields nearby. 

7. Compass heading: heading from the plane compass. 

8. Isogonic lines: Lines on charts that connect equal points of magnetic variations. 

9. Heading: the direction the nose of the plane is pointed inline

10. Track: actual path made over the ground. 

11. Drift angle: the angle between heading and track. 

12. Wind correction angle: the angular difference between the desired track and the heading of the plane necessary to keep the aircraft on the desired track. 

13. Latitude: measurements north or south of the equator in degrees, minutes, and seconds. 

14. Longitude: Measurements east or west of the prime meridian in degrees, minutes, and seconds. 

1. Prime meridian runs through Greenwich, England. Zulu time starts here. 

2. Airspeed

1. Indicated airspeed: airspeed read off the airspeed indicator. 

2. Calibrated airspeed: indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and position errors. 

3. Ground Speed: speed of the aircraft in relation to the ground.

3. Altitudes

1. Density altitude: pressure altitude corrected by nonstandard temperature. 

2. Pressure altitude: altitude read from altimeter when setting to 29.92.

3. True altitude: altitude above sea level. 

4. Absolute altitude: altitude above ground. 

5. Standard pressure: 29.92”HG 

6. Standard temperature 15-degree celsius

 

2. Features of aeronautical charts 

1. Sectional

1. Most common

2. 1:500,000 (1 inch=6.86 NM)

2. VFR TAC 

1. For flying near class B airspace

2. 1:250,000 or (1 inch = 3.43)

3. WAC

1. Covers land areas of the world 

2. 1:1,000,000 (1 inch = 13.73)

4. Symbols on these charts

1. Airports, nav aid, airspace, topography, obstructions, highways, train tracks, rivers, and etc….

 

3. Importance of using the proper and current aeronautical charts

1. Part 91.103 preflight action 

2. Part 91.13 Careless actions 

3. Ground features change

4. Revisions to Airports, nav aid, airspace, topography, obstructions, highways, train tracks and etc. 

 

4. Method of plotting a course, selection of fuel stops, and alternates and appropriate action in the event of unforeseen situations. 

 

1. Determine your true airspeed for each segment of the flight.

1. Consult your plane’s POH

2.  

3. Draw a course directly from the center of the departure airport and end at the center of the destination airport. 

1. If the route is not direct, it can be broken down into two or more line segments via a VOR or another landmark. 

4. Appropriate checkpoints should be selected along the way and noted in some way. 

1. Top of climb

1. Rate of the climb can be calculated in the AFM (ex 1,000FPM)

2. Altitude to climb: cruising altitude - airport elevation (ex. 6,500-500=6,000ft to climb)

3. 6,000 to climb at 1,000 fpm=6min of climbing 

4. Use your groundspeed in the climb in order to find the distance it will take to climb to 6,500’. 

1. If your GS is 90 knots in the climb, it will take 9 NM to reach your altitude.

2. 6min/60 min=1/10 of an hour to climb 

3. 90nm/hr(1/10hr)=9nm

2. Top of descent 

1. Based in the rate of descent info and cruising altitude 

2. Rate of descent is up to you (1000 FPM as an example)

3. Altitude to descend (cruising altitude - traffic pattern altitude)

1. Ex. 6,500-500=6000 to descend

2. 6000 feet to descend at 1000fpm

3. 6000/1000=6 mins

4. If ground speed is 100 knots while descending then (6min/60min)(100 kias)=10 NM. 

3. Choose large towns, lakes, rivers, or a combination of landmarks. 

4. Choose towns shaded with yellow which is a lighted town with a substantial amount of buildings. 

5. The course on either side of the planned route should be check to see if we need to be concerned about any type of airspace. 

6. Study the terrain and obstructions along the route which is necessary to determine the highest and lowest elevations. 

1. Determine which altitude should be our cruising altitude. 

2. If the flight is flown above 3000 feet AGL, conformance to the cruising altitude appropriate to the direction of flight is required. 

7. If able, fly above any airspaces.

8. Measure the total distance of the course as well as the distance between the checkpoints.

9. After determining the distance, the true course should be measured then corrected for wind correction angle to get true heading. 

1. On your flight computer, calculate the wind correction angle and add/subtract from the true course to get true heading. 

10. Find the variation and add or subtract it to the true heading to get the magnetic heading. 

1. Using the isogonic lines on the sectional, add or subtract the number of degrees.

11. Each plane has its deviation on the compass card which allows us to get the compass heading. 

12. Ground speed is done with a manual or electronic calculator. 

13. Based on the ground speed, the total trip time, as well as the time between the checkpoint and the fuel burned, can be determined. 

14. As the trip progresses, the pilot can note heading and time and make adjustments in heading, GS, and time. 

15. Fuel stops

1. Based on comfort or follow 91.151.

1. 30 min reserve fuel for day ops

2. 45 min reserve fuel for night ops

16. Unforeseen events

1. Look for alternates

2. Look at the terrain if an emergency landing would be necessary. 

3. Mentally prepare for any type of emergencies. 

4. Make sure flight does not penetrate any restricted or prohibited areas. 

5. Check NOTMAS

6. Review AFD

5. Fundamentals of pilotage and dead reckoning 

1. Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints

1. Checkpoints selected should be prominent features common to the area of the flight. 

1. Checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features, such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines. 

2. If possible, select features that make useful boundaries or brackets on each side of the course. 

2. Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint. 

1. If one is missed, look for the next one while maintaining heading. 

1. If confused, hold the heading.

3. Most tall obstructions are marked by strobe lights to make them more visible to pilots. 

1. Be cautious as features can change. 

2. Dead Reckoning

1. Navigation solely by means of computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and directions. 

2. The products derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed and velocity are heading and ground speed. 

3. The predicted heading takes the plane along the intended path and the GS established the time to arrive at each checkpoint and the destination. 

4. The heading and GS is constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage as observed from checkpoints. 

 

6. Fundamentals of radio navigation 

1. Advance in navigational radio receivers installed in planes and development of charts enable us to fly to any exact positions. 

2. The appropriate nav facility is tuned and the ground track is controlled based on the instrument’s indications.

3. Ground station or satellites in space transmitting signals to nav radio receivers in the plane. 

4. VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)

1. Transmits straight-line courses (radial) from the station in all directions. 

2. Requires a receiver with a tuning device and a VOR or Omni navigation instrument (course deviation indicator (CDI)).

1. CDI consists of an Omni bearing selector, a CDI needle, and a to/from indicator. 

2. The course selector is an azimuth dial that can be rotated to select the desired radial or to determine the radial over which the aircraft is flying. The magnetic course “TO” or “FROM” the station can be determined. 

3. When the course selector is rotated, it moves the CDI or needle to indicate the position relative to the aircraft. 

4. The course deviation needle also moves to the right or left if the plane is flown or drifting away from the radial which is set in the course selector. 

5. By entering the needle, the course selector indicates the “from” or “to”.

1. If “from” is shown, and the course shown is followed, the aircraft is flown away from the station. 

5. The NDB-Non directional radio beacon 

6. Global position systems

 

7. Diversion to an alternate

 

1. Reasons for a diversion 

1. Unpredicted weather systems

2. System malfunction

3. Poor preflight planning 

4. Lost 

2. Risk management procedures should become a priority. 

1. In order to circumvent the effects of panic, the five C’s of aviation have been devised. The five C’s are: Confess, climb, conserve fuel, communicate, and comply.

2. Before the trip, check for alternate airports and forced landing spots. 

3. Because of limited flight deck space and much-needed attention to flying and making calculations, all possible shortcuts should be used. 

1. Estimate heading, time, fuel.

2. Doing actual measurements can aggravate an emergency. 

4. Course to an alternate can measure with a plotter or the compass rose depicted around VOR spots. 

5. If time permits, start diversion from a landmark.

1. If an emergency, head straight to the airport. 

6. Once established on course, not the time, and use winds aloft to calculate a heading and GS.

1. Update any calculations if needed. 

7. Use handheld GPS for guidance and call ATC if needed. 

 

8. Lost Procedures

1. If a town cannot be seen, the first thing to do is climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions. 

1. An increase in altitude increases radio and navigation reception range and also increases radar coverage. 

2. Use the VOR, it can be possible to determine position by plotting an azimuth from two or more navigational facilities.

3. Use portable GPS.

4. Communicate with any ATC in the area.

5. If the situation gets life-threatening, call 121.5 or transponder to 7700.

6. Remember the 5Cs 

1. Climb

2. Confess- don’t cover up the problem

3. Communicate

4. Comply

5. Conserve 

9. Computation of fuel consumption 

1. Estimated time en route x fuel rate = fuel required 

2. Check your POH to see the fuel burn rate for a specific power setting. 

 

10. Importance of preparing and properly using a flight log

1. Not required but good practice. 

2. Allows ATC to know where you are going and can help rescue in case of emergency

3. Allows you to be organized, prevent being lost, and you can reference it. 

 

11. Importance of a weather check and the use of good judgment in making a “go/no-go” decision. 

 

1. Obtain a preflight weather briefing is the first step to determine if the can be conducted safely.

2. FAR 91.103 requires familiarity with weather reports and forecasts for the flight. 

3. GO/NO-Go

1. Good judgment is necessary for deciding whether or not to take the flight.

1. Gusty conditions can exceed crosswind limitations. 

2. Weather factors must be considered in relation to the equipment to be flown. 

1. Can the plane handle the flight.

1.  given temperature, altitude, density altitude, and aircraft loading, what is the expected aircraft performance on:

2.  takeoff distance

3.  time & distance to climb

4. cruise performance

5. Landing distance 

2. The following conditions may lead to a no go decision 

1. T-storms 

2. Fast-moving fronts or squall lines 

3. Moderate or greater turbulence

4. Icing 

5. Fog

3. Physical/mental condition 

1. IMSAFE checklist

2. Recent flight experience 

4. Passenger experience

5. Alternates 

 

12. Purpose and procedure used in filing a flight plan

1. Not required but good practice. 

2. Allows ATC to know where you are going and can help rescue in case of emergency

3. Allows you to be organized, prevent being lost, and you can reference it. 

4. Filing can be done on the ground or in the air

1. DUATs

2. 1800sxbrief

3. After takeoff, contact the fss and give them takeoff time to activate the flight. 

4. Once filed, the flight plan will be held for one hour after the proposed departure time 

5. Close the flight immediately when you land.

1. FAA will initiate search and rescue 30 min after the scheduled flight time.